BOOK REVIEW - The Victory of Reason: How Christianity Led to Freedom, Capitalism and Western Success by Rodney Stark

In his 2005 book, The Victory of Reason: How Christianity Led to Freedom, Capitalism and Western Success, former professor of sociology and comparative religion Rodney Stark advances a new thesis: that rational Christian theology was the primary ingredient in the West’s recipe for rapid success. Before his passing on July 21, 2022, Rodney Stark was no stranger to controversy, writing books that challenged the status quo and conventional thinking. One of his most widely read books, and a personal favorite of mine, is The Churching of America, 1776-2005, written with Roger Finke in 1992. Rodney Stark was one of the first academics to suggest that religious choice is rational, drawing on ideas developed by economists such as Gary Becker, formerly a professor of economics at the University of Chicago. Becker's work on the economics of the family, for example, has been influential in the study of religion. Rodney Stark is the author of thirty books and numerous academic articles. He was a professor of sociology and comparative religions at the University of Washington for thirty-two years and, after retirement, took a post as founding editor of the Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion. Before he died in 1992, Rodney Stark played a significant role at Baylor University and was instrumental in shepherding a movement to advance the scientific study of religion.

Summary

       In The Victory of Reason: How Christianity Led to Freedom, Capitalism, and Western Success, Stark argues that the West's current and historical political and material success is primarily due to four factors that differentiate it from the rest of the world. The first factor relates to how Christian leaders and believers have interpreted the Bible over time. Concerning the first factor, the book dissects the pre- and post-Reformational periods. Stark suggests that there was a foundational shift among believers during the post-Reformation period, moving away from a literalist view of God’s Word to a more rational, perhaps even constructivist, view of it. Additionally, included within the first factor, Stark lays the foundation that the rational understanding of God’s Word was part of Christianity’s ontology. He presents this thesis by analyzing the ideas of religious leaders, particularly Clement of Alexandria, who lived in the second century, and by examining those of John Calvin in the sixteenth century. With this societal change in perspective, Stark implies that it opened the door to the acceptance of historically taboo ideas, each of which was important to the advancement of society.

Stark contends that the second factor, although related to the first, was that the Christian faith was reinterpreted to accept trust in progress through human invention. This new translation of God’s Word catalyzed movements such as the Industrial Revolution and subsequent generational technologies, propelling Western civilization forward.

The third factor, also related to the first, was that the Christian faith was again translated to accept the notion of personal autonomy and freedom, lighting the way for a movement against the monarchy and despotic governments toward a self-governing political system such as the republic or democracy.

Last, and again related to the first factor, Christianity came to accept that for-profit commerce, also known as capitalism or the free market, could assist in furthering progress and solidifying personal freedoms within self-governing, democratic systems. This combination of rational theology, self-governance, and capitalism led to the West's success.

The book is structured in two sections. Section one presents the foundation for Stark’s argument that rationality and reason within Christianity were the primary ignition that created the foundation for Western civilization. Section two provides examples and case analyses supporting section one. This book is well written, like almost all of Stark’s books, and it is suitable for the academic community and the general public. Anyone interested in the intersection of faith, economics, and politics may find this book enjoyable. One of the more penetrating chapters, chapter one, lays out quite nicely how theology moved from an irrational idea to a more rational one. In this chapter, Stark compares Western Christianity with Eastern mysticism, arguing that Christianity, beginning with Clemente of Alexandria, was one that not only encouraged a spiritual practice but also a practice of trying to rationalize the teachings and meanings thereto. Stark quotes Clemente of Alexandria, “Do not think that we say these things are only to be received by faith, but also that they are to be asserted by reason. For indeed it is not safe to commit these things to bare faith without reason since assuredly truth cannot be without reason” (7). Stark spends considerable time analyzing the works of Tertullian, Aquinas, Augustine, Calvin, and others to make his point that Christianity is the only faith that allows its members to wrestle with and come to their convictions about what the Holy scriptures mean. However, as Stark and Augustine both argue, faith in Christ precedes any ability to rationalize or debate the scriptures.

In Chapter Two, Stark explains that, despite the conventional view of the Dark Ages, there were technological improvements, many of which were due to changes in monastic processes. Stark locates the separation of work and the beginning of organized labor among the Christians, particularly the Franciscans. Accordingly, these new findings modified the historical interpretations of God’s Word, laying the foundation for capitalist formation and pushing for a more preference-based society. Chapter 3, the last of the foundational chapters, lays out a nice progression, showing how rational theology has taught society to accept the basic tenets of human and civil rights, moral equality, property rights, and the ability to participate in the government process. In Section Two, Chapters 4-7, Stark does an excellent job showing the progression of capitalism from Italy to England and then to the British Colonies. He also compares the more successful capitalist states with the anti-capitalist states, contending that where theological rationality was somewhat hampered, it was followed closely by a poorer or failed state. Ultimately, Stark concludes that rational theology was the precursor to a financially successful, autonomous society. Had it not been for the forward-thinking Christian churches of the past, most people would not read, would be poor, and most likely starving today.     

Critical Evaluation

Stark challenges conventional wisdom concerning the primary driver of democratic capitalism and the incredible progress experienced in the West. Although Stark suggests four components to Western success, I disagree. Based on Stark’s arguments, I suggest that only one major component differentiates the West from other states: rational theology. A close read of the text will show that rational theology modified the views of Christian leaders, which then assisted in changing the views of believers. This change in perspective allowed for the creation of capitalism, personal autonomy, and political freedom. It is important to note that although rudimentary, various forms of market and self-governing political systems were already used by other states, tribes, or groups, even before the development of the West. Stark adds to the conversation, although I wish it were done more strongly, that by reinterpreting the historical and traditional understanding of God’s Word, the Christian body began to accept the idea of its “calling” as the “City on a Hill,” a society blessed by God. It seems that Stark glosses over the fact that as the West modified the historical religious text and implemented capitalism, personal autonomy, and democracy, it gained confidence, such that Western Christians began to accept that they were God's chosen people. It was this newfound confidence that pushed the British colonies to seek political independence, and it also encouraged industry and significant investments, taking the new United States to heights never seen before.

Challenging Weber’s ideas in The Protestant Ethic and Spirit of Capitalism, Stark does a relatively good job of presenting an alternative thesis. Although Stark takes a somewhat critical pen to the ideas espoused by Weber, it seems as though he misinterprets some of the nuance discovered in such ideas. Stark glances over the importance of Calvinism and predestination, an idea known to have pushed capitalism forward in the northern European countries. As Weber beautifully articulates, pursuing spiritual fruits encouraged Calvinists to accumulate wealth. Only by having such wealth would a Calvinist become comfortable that they were one of the elect. Stark does not address this phenomenon, though I believe it could have further supported his argument that rational theology was the precursor to capitalist democracy.

Additionally, I find Stark’s overall argument a bit disjointed in the sense that rational theology and the acceptance of capitalism, self-governance, and personal freedom were not adopted linearly but rather ushered in like a tidal wave after the reformation. Sure, Clemente of Alexandria suggested that wealth with the right intentions can be used for good, while Saint Francis recognized that work, as a form of visible prayer, was something to pursue and taken seriously; it was not until years later that the perfect combination of theology, science, and political philosophy was presented in a way that they could be taken advantage of collectively.

In some respects, Stark overestimates his ideas while not considering other causal factors. Essentially, his ultimate conclusions may be spurious, failing to consider different variables that may be just as important. For instance, Peter Bernstein highlights brilliantly in Against the Gods: The Remarkable Story of Risk that capitalism, democracy, and innovation were directly tied to society’s understanding of risk. Bernstein explores that the advancement of Western civilization was directly due to its understanding of risk and how best to manage it. This new understanding of risk and how to avoid it created a desire for wealth accumulation and personal freedom. Unlike Stark’s ideas tied to a belief in God, Bernstein argues that wealth, capitalism, and liberty are directly related to moving away from God, and toward a society of self-sufficiency. Although I appreciate Stark’s ideas, I wonder how many causal variables are missing from his conclusion, which may render his thesis wrong.  

More importantly, and perhaps where I have the most challenge with Stark’s thesis, is his celebration of rational theology. It is hard not to feel Stark’s admiration for his thesis, his apologia for rational theology, and his overall celebration of Western success. When critically analyzing his ideas, one takes away from his conclusion that we are at The End of History and the Last Man. This is important because Stark suggests that rational theology has led the West to this wonderful place, just short of utopia, and that this society is what we should expect in the future. This notion bothers me because Stark fails to consider the possible long-term challenges with rational theology. Perhaps rational thinking and rational theology envelop themselves. Let me explain.

At or around the time of the Reformation, there was mainly one Christian denomination: the Catholic Church. As we know, and as Stark’s work in Churching of America 1776-2005: Winner and Losers in Our Religious Economy shows, Western society now has over 2,000 Christian denominations. Each denomination is arguably a new development or package of Christian ideas relevant to one or more congregants and leaders. As time ages, denominations only seem to grow in relation to our creative energies required to modify and rationalize newer Christian interpretations. If one were to take this progression to its finality, we may discover a Christian faith where there is little to no agreement among the churches. We may come to a place where Christianity is no longer a communal faith but self-produced, with each person arguing from their vantage point, accepting what they think is right or wrong. As Nietzsche suggested, perhaps we arrive at a place of nihilism, where meaning breaks down, and the foundation from which it was established is gone. This is precisely what Nietzsche suggested when he argued, “God is dead, and we killed him.” His idea was figurative, as he knew very early what would come of a society based solely on rationality and grounded in little to nothing mystical or irrational. Perhaps we arrive at a place described by Alisdair McIntyre in After Virtue, where we no longer rationalize from a position of knowledge but rather argues only from a position of feeling and expression. Should this be the case, then perhaps rational theology has gone too far, and it would have been wonderful if Stark were to address the moral hazards associated with such ideas.

Conclusion

Overall, I appreciate Rodney Stark's work in The Victory of Reason: How Christianity Led to Freedom, Capitalism, and Western Success. His sweeping historical lessons on capitalism, particularly in northern Italy, are impressive and eye-opening. I also appreciate how he moves through 2,500 years of history in slightly over 200 pages. Stark is incredibly able to draw linear relationships across space and time, which is quite enjoyable. However, with this qualitative approach, causal variables of significance may be missed, and I worry that this is the case here. Additionally, as pointed out above, I wish Stark would have spent less time celebrating rational theology and more time critically analyzing its potential challenges and long-term significance.

Stark, Rodney. The Victory of Reason: How Christianity Led to Freedom, Capitalism, and Western Success. New York: Random House, 2005.